I walk in a commercial district full of caterers, flooring companies, plastics companies, etc. and notice a sign that says “Studio 7.” When I look it up online, it is revealed to be a performing arts school for children with a yearly tuition of $18,000. In addition to acting, dance, music and art, it also teaches modeling to children aged 9 to 17. The modeling school is only $350/semester and meets on Saturdays and once a month on Sundays. I know there are many models who have gone on to become successful actors and actresses. It does require some acting ability to be a good model. I have enjoyed watching “Project Runway” on TV because I admire the creative abilities of the designers. But they also have to be business savvy e.g., knowing which model to choose who will perfectly reflect their design style. The collaboration between designer and model must complement each other, because in the end, it is the model who is on the runway — not the designer. The way the model moves and emotes must sell the design. So, how does a person learn to be a great model? Let’s find out.
According to Wikipedia, a model is a person with a role either to promote, display or advertise commercial products — notably fashion clothing in fashion shows — or to serve as a visual aid for people who are creating works of art or to pose for photography. Though models are predominantly female, there are also male models, especially to model clothing. Models may work professionally or casually.
Modeling is considered to be different from other types of public performance, such as acting or dancing. Although the difference between modeling and performing is not always clear, appearing in a film or a play is not generally considered to be "modeling." Similarly, appearing in a TV advertisement is generally not considered modeling. Modeling generally does not involve speaking. Personal opinions are generally not expressed, and a model's reputation and image are considered critical.
Types of modeling include fashion, glamour, fitness, bikini, fine art, body-part, promotional and commercial print models. Models are featured in a variety of media formats including: books, magazines, films, newspapers, internet and television. Fashion modeling as a profession is sometimes featured in films like “Prêt-à-Porter” and “Looker,” reality TV shows such as “America’s Next Top Model” and “The Janice Dickinson Modeling Agency” and music videos like “Freedom! ’90,” “Wicked Game,” “Daughters” and “Blurred Lines.”
Celebrities — including actors, singers, sports personalities and reality TV stars — frequently participate in modeling contests as assignments and on contracts, in addition to their regular work. Often, modeling is not a full-time, main activity.
History
Early years
Modeling as a profession was first established in 1853 by Charles Frederick Worth, the "father of haute couture,” when he asked his wife, Marie Vernet Worth, to model the clothes he designed. The term "house model" was coined to describe this type of work. Eventually, this became common practice for Parisian fashion houses. There were no standard physical measurement requirements for a model, and most designers would use women of varying sizes to demonstrate variety in their designs.
With the development of fashion photography, the modeling profession expanded to photo modeling. Models remained fairly anonymous, and relatively poorly paid, until the late 1940s, when the world's first three supermodels, Barbara Goalen, Bettina Braziani and Lisa Fonssagrives began commanding very large sums. During the 1940s and 1950s, Graziani was the most photographed woman in France and the undisputed queen of couture, while Fonssagrives appeared on over 200 Vogue covers; her name recognition led to the importance of Vogue in shaping the careers of fashion models.
One of the most popular models during the 1940s was Jinx Falkenburg who was paid $25 per hour, a large sum at the time; through the 1950s, Wilhelmina Cooper, Jean Patchett, Dovima, Dorian Leigh, Suzy Parker, Evelyn Tripp and Carmen Dell’Orefice also dominated fashion. Wilhelmina became one of the most famous models of the 1950s and 1960s, and during her career, she appeared on the cover of 255 magazines. She also modeled in Europe and in France; she worked for both Coco Chanel and Christian Dior. On February 5, 1965, she married Victor Bruce Cooper, former executive producer of “The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.” In 1967, they founded Wilhelmina Models, which became the other leading model agency alongside Ford Models, years before Elite Model Management and other agencies began.
Dorothea Church was among the first Black models in the industry to gain recognition in Paris. She attended Paul Laurence Dunbar High School in Texarkana, Texas and then Wiley College in Marshall, Texas, where she received a bachelor's degree in biology and pre-med, graduating cum laude. In 1953, her engagement to a Detroit law student, Edward Bell, was announced. The engagement was called off several months later when, a report in Jet magazine noted, "she would not agree to drop her modeling career after the wedding to stay home and do the things a wife should do."
Her sister Lois Towles, later a well-known concert pianist, sang in the Fisk University concert choir during its European tour in 1949, and Church, accompanied by her husband, followed her on a two-month vacation. While in Paris, Church decided to try out for some modeling assignments. Christian Dior hired her to replace one of his regular models who was out on vacation. Her assignment with Dior led to her spending the next five years in France, modeling for Jacques Fath, Elsa Schiaparelli, Pierre Balmain and Robert Piguet.
Church recalled her experience in Paris of the early 1950s in a 2004 interview for Women’s Wear Daily: "For once I was not considered black, African American or Negro. I was just an American." The French fashion establishment "treated you like a queen," she said.
In her 1998 book “Black and Beautiful,” author Barbara Summers quotes Church about her celebrity status in Paris at the beginning of the 1950s: "I got invited out all the time. I was the only black model in Europe, and I just thought I was an international person."
That being said, when Church returned to the United States, Pierre Balmain would not allow her to borrow his designs for an Ebony magazine shoot out of concern that his white clientele would be offended and that the magazine's readership would not be interested in purchasing Balmain's creations.
Black models were unknown outside the fashion community. Wilhelmina Cooper's measurements were 38"-24"-36" whereas Chanel Iman's measurements are 32"-23"-33." In 1946, Ford Models was established by Eileen and Gerard Ford in New York, making it one of the oldest model agencies in the world.
The 1960s and the beginning of the industry
In the 1960s, the modeling world began to establish modeling agencies. Throughout Europe, secretarial services acted as models' agents, charging them weekly rates for their messages and bookings. For the most part, models were responsible for their own billing. In Germany, agents were not allowed to work for a percentage of a person's earnings, so referred to themselves as secretaries. With the exception of a few models traveling to Paris or New York, traveling was relatively unheard of for a model. Most models only worked in one market due to different labor laws governing modeling in various countries. In the 1960s, Italy had many fashion houses and fashion magazines but was in dire need of models. Italian agencies would often coerce models to return to Italy without work visas by withholding their pay. They would also pay their models in cash, which models would have to hide from customs agents. It was not uncommon for models staying in hotels such as La Louisiana in Paris or the Arena in Milan to have their hotel rooms raided by the police looking for their work visas. It was rumored that competing agencies were behind the raids. This led many agencies to form worldwide chains; for example, the Marilyn Agency — established in Paris in 1985 by Mrs. Marilyn Gauthier — has branches in Paris and New York.
By the late 1960s, London was considered the best market in Europe due to its more organized and innovative approach to modeling. It was during this period that models began to become household names. Models such as Jean Shrimpton, Tania Mallet, Celia Hammond, Twiggy and Penelope Tree dominated the London fashion scene and were well paid, unlike their predecessors. Twiggy became The Face of '66 at the age of 16. At this time, model agencies were not as restrictive about the models they represented, although it was uncommon for them to sign shorter models. Twiggy — who stood at 5 feet 6 inches with a 32" bust and had a boy's haircut — is credited with changing model ideals. At that time, she earned £80 an hour, while the average wage was £15 a week.
In 1967, seven of the top model agents in London formed the Association of London Model Agents. The formation of this association helped legitimize modeling and changed the fashion industry. Even with a more professional attitude towards modeling, models were still expected to have their hair and makeup done before they arrived at a shoot. Meanwhile, agencies took responsibility for a model's promotional materials and branding. That same year, former top fashion model Wilhelmina Cooper opened up her own fashion agency with her husband called Wilhelmina Models. By 1968, FM Agency and Models 1 were established and represented models in a similar way that agencies do today. By the late 1960s, models were treated better and were making better wages. One of the innovators, Ford Models, was the first agency to advance models money they were owed and would often allow teen models who did not live locally to reside in their house, a precursor to model housing.
The 1970s and 1980s
The innovations of the 1960s flowed into the 1970s fashion scene. As a result of model industry associations and standards, model agencies became more business-minded and more thought went into a model's promotional materials. By this time, agencies were starting to pay for a model's publicity. In the early 1970s, Scandinavia had many tall, leggy, blonde-haired, blue-eyed models and not enough clients. It was during this time that Ford Models pioneered scouting. They would spend time working with agencies holding modeling contests. This was the precursor to the Ford Models Supermodel of the World competition which was established in 1980. Ford also focused their attentions on Brazil which had a wide array of seemingly "exotic" models, which eventually led to establishment of Ford Models Brazil. It was also during this time that the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue debuted. The magazine set a trend by photographing "bigger and healthier" California models and printing their names by their photos, thus turning many of them into household names and establishing the issue as a hallmark of supermodel status.
The 1970s marked numerous milestones in fashion. Beverly Johnson was the first Black woman to appear on the cover of U.S. Vogue in 1974. Models, including Iman, Grace Jones, Pat Jones, Pat Cleveland, Alva Chinn Donyale Luna, Minah Bird, Naomi Sims and Toukie Smith were some of the top Black fashion models who paved the way for Black women in fashion. In 1975, Margaux Hemingway landed a then-unprecedented million-dollar contract as the face of Fabergé's Babe perfume and the same year appeared on the cover of Time magazine, labeled one of the "New Beauties," giving further name recognition to fashion models.
Many of the world's most prominent modeling agencies were established in the 1970s and early 1980s. These agencies created the standard by which agencies now run. In 1974, Nevs Models was established in London with only a men's board, the first of its kind. Elite Models was founded in Paris in 1975 as well as Friday's Models in Japan. The next year Cal-Carries was established in Singapore, the first of a chain of agencies in Asia. In 1977, Select Model Management opened its doors as well as Why Not Models in Milan. By the 1980s, agencies such as Premier Model Management, Storm Models, Mikas, Marilyn and Metropolitan Models had been established.
In October 1981, Life cited Shelley Hack, Lauren Hutton and Iman for Revlon, Margaux Hemingway for Fabergé, Karen Graham for Estée Lauder, Christina Ferrare for Max Factor and Cheryl Tiegs for CoverGirl by proclaiming them the "million dollar faces" of the beauty industry. These models negotiated previously unheard of lucrative and exclusive deals with giant cosmetics companies and were instantly recognizable. Their names became well-known to the public.
By the 1980s, most models were able to make modeling a full-time career. It was common for models to travel abroad and work throughout Europe. As modeling became global, numerous agencies began to think globally. In 1980, Ford Models — the innovator of scouting — introduced the Ford Models Supermodel of the World contest. That same year, John Casablancas opened Elite Models in New York. In 1981, cosmetics companies began contracting top models to lucrative endorsement deals. By 1983, Elite developed its own contest titled the Elite Model Look competition. In New York during the 1980s, there were so-called "model wars" in which the Ford and Elite agencies fought over models and campaigns. Models were jumping back and forth between agencies such Elite, Wilhelmina and Ford. In New York, the late 1980s trend was the boyish look in which models had short, cropped hair and looked androgynous. In Europe, the trend was the exact opposite. During this time, a lot of American models who were considered more feminine-looking moved abroad. By the mid-1980s, big hair was made popular by some musical groups, and the boyish look was out. The curvaceous models who had been popular in the 1950s and early 1970s were in style again. Models like Patti Hansen earned $200 an hour for print and $2,000 for television plus residuals. It was estimated that Hansen earned about $300,000 a year during the 1980s.
1990s
The early 1990s were dominated by the high fashion models of the late 1980s. In 1990, Linda Evangelista famously said to Vogue, "We don't wake up for less than $10,000 a day." Evangelista and her contemporaries, Naomi Campbell, Cindy Crawford, Christy Turlington, Tatjana Patitz and Stephanie Seymour became arguably the most recognizable models in the world, earning the moniker of "supermodel," and were boosted to global recognition and new heights of wealth for the industry. In 1991, Turlington signed a contract with Maybelline that paid her $800,000 for twelve days' work each year.
By the mid‑1990s, the new "heroin chic" movement — characterized by pale skin, dark circles underneath the eyes, a very skinny body, dark red lipstick, stringy hair and an angular bone structure — became popular amongst New York and London editorial clients. Kate Moss became its poster child through her ads for Calvin Klein. In spite of the heroin chic movement, model Claudia Schiffer earned $12 million. With the popularity of lingerie retailer Victoria’s Secret and the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue, there was a need for healthier-looking supermodels such as Tyra Banks and Heidi Klum to meet commercial modeling demand. The mid‑1990s also saw many Asian countries establishing modeling agencies.
By the late 1990s, the heroin chic era had run its course. Teen-inspired clothing infiltrated mainstream fashion, teen pop music was on the rise, and artists such as Britney Spears, Aaliyah and Christina Aguilera popularized pleather and bare midriffs. As fashion changed to a more youthful demographic, the models who rose to fame had to be sexier for the digital age. Following Gisele Bündchen's breakthrough, a wave of Brazilian models including Adriana Lima and Alessandra Ambrosio rose to fame on runways and became popular in commercial modeling throughout the 2000s. Some have tied this increase in Brazilian models to the trend of magazines featuring celebrities instead of models on their covers.
2000s and after
In the late 2000s, the Brazilians fell out of favor on the runways. Editorial clients were favoring models with a china-doll or alien look to them, such as Gemma Ward and Lily Cole. During the 2000s, Ford Models and NEXT Model Management were engaged in a legal battle, with each agency alleging that the other was stealing its models.
However, the biggest controversy of the 2000s was the health of high-fashion models participating in fashion week. While the health of models had been a concern since the 1970s, there were several high-profile news stories surrounding the deaths of young fashion models due to eating disorders and drug abuse. The British Fashion Council subsequently asked designers to sign a contract stating they would not use models under the age of 16. On March 3, 2012, Vogue banned models under the age of 16, as well as models who appeared to have an eating disorder. Similarly, other countries placed bans on unhealthy and underage models, including Spain, Italy and Israel, which all enacted a minimum body mass index or BMI requirement.
In 2013, New York toughened its child labor law protections for models under the age of 18 by passing New York Senate Bill No. 5486, which gives underage models the same labor protections afforded to child actors. Key new protections included the following: underage models are not to work before 5:00 p.m. or after 10:00 p.m. on school nights, nor were they to work later than 12:30 a.m. on non-school nights; the models may not return to work less than 12 hours after they leave; a pediatric nurse must be on site; models under 16 must be accompanied by an adult chaperone; parents or guardians of underage models must create a trust fund account into which employers will transfer a minimum of 15% of the child model's gross earnings; and employers must set aside time and a dedicated space for educational instruction.
Runway models
Runway models showcase clothes from fashion designers, fashion media and consumers. They are also called "live models" and are self-employed. They are wanted to be over the height of 5'11" for men and 5'8" for women. Runway models work in different locations, constantly traveling among those cities where fashion is well known — New York City, London, Paris and Milan. Second-tier international fashion center cities include Rome, Florence, Venice, Brescia, Barcelona, Los Angeles, Tokyo and Moscow.
The criteria for runway models include certain height and weight requirements. During runway shows, models must constantly change clothes and makeup. Models walk, turn and stand in order to demonstrate a garment's key features. Models also go to interviews — called "go and sees" — to present their portfolios. The more experience a model has, the more likely she/he is to be hired for a fashion show. A runway model can also work in other areas, such as department store fashion shows, and the most successful models sometimes create their own product lines or go into acting.
The British Association of Model Agents or AMA says that female models should be around 34"-24"-34" and between 5 feet 8 inches and 5 feet 11 inches tall. The average model is very slender. Those who do not meet the size requirement may try to become a plus-size model. According to the New York Better Business Career Services website, the preferred dimensions for a male model are a height of 5 feet 11 inches to 6 feet 2 inches, a waist of 29–32 inches and a chest measurement of 39–40 inches. Male runway models are notably skinny and well-toned.
Male and female models must also possess clear skin, healthy hair and attractive facial features. Stringent weight and body proportion guidelines form the selection criteria by which established and would‑be models are judged for their placement suitability, on an ongoing basis. There can be some variation regionally and by market tier, subject to current prevailing trends at any point, in any era, by agents, agencies and end-clients.
Formerly, the required measurements for models were 35"-23.5"-35" inches, the alleged measurements of Marilyn Monroe. Today's fashion models tend to have measurements closer to the AMA-recommended shape, but some — such as Afghan model Zohre Esmaeli — still have 35"-23.5"-35" measurements. Although in some fashion centers, a size 00 is more desirable than a size 0.
The often-thin shape of many fashion models has been criticized for warping girls' body image and encouraging eating disorders. Organizers of a fashion show in Madrid in September 2006 turned away models who were judged to be underweight by medical personnel who were on hand. In February 2007, following the death of her sister, model Luisel Ramos, Uruguayan model Eliana Ramos became the third fashion model to die of malnutrition in six months. The second victim was Ana Carolina Reston. Luisel Ramos died of heart failure caused by anorexia nervosa just after stepping off the catwalk. In 2015, France passed a law requiring models to be declared healthy by a doctor in order to participate in fashion shows. The law also requires re-touched images to be marked as such in magazines.
Plus-size models
Plus-size models are models who generally have larger measurements than editorial fashion models. The primary use of plus-size models is to appear in advertising and runway shows for plus-size labels. Plus-size models are also engaged in work that is not strictly related to selling large-sized clothing e.g., stock photography and advertising photography for cosmetics, household and pharmaceutical products and sunglasses, footwear and watches. Therefore, plus-size models do not exclusively wear garments marketed as plus-size clothing. This is especially true when participating in fashion editorials for mainstream fashion magazines. Some plus-size models have appeared in runway shows and campaigns for mainstream retailers and designers such as Gucci, Guess, Jean-Paul Gaultier, Levi's and Versace Jeans.
Magazine models
Fashion modeling also includes modeling clothing in fashion magazines. In Japan, there are different types of fashion magazine models. Exclusive models are models who regularly appear in a fashion magazine and model exclusively for it. On the other hand, street models or "reader models" are amateur models who model part-time for fashion magazines in conjunction to schoolwork and their main jobs. Unlike professional models, street models are meant to represent the average person in appearance and do not appear on runways. Street models are also not exclusively contracted to fashion magazines. If a street model is popular enough, some of them become exclusive models. Many fashion icons and musicians in Japan began their career as street models, including Kaela Kimura and Kyary Pamyu Pamyu.
Black models
The arrival of black women modeling as a profession began in early postwar America. It began most notably from the need of advertisers and a rise of black photography magazines. The women who advanced in such careers were those in a middle-class system that emphasized the conservative value of marriage, motherhood and domesticity. Originally titled the "Brownskin" model, Black women refined the social, sexual and racial realities confined in the gender expectations of the modeling world. There was a profound need for Black women to partake in the advertising process for the new "Negro market." With the help of Branford Models, the first Black agency, 1946 was the beginning of the Black modeling era. Branford Models’ was able to "overturn the barriers facing African American in the early postwar period," especially by lifting at least one economic freedom. In this postwar America, the demand for such presence in magazines advanced "as a stage for models to display consumer goods," while assisting "in constructing a new visual discourse of urban middle-class African America."
While they represented diversity, a major gap in the fashion industry, it was only until the 1970s that Black models had a substantial presence in the modeling world. Known as the "Black is Beautiful" movement, the 1970s became the era of the Black model. With growing disenfranchisement and racial inequality, the United States recognized the urgency of opening the "doors of social access and visibility to Black Americans." The world of fashion was the gateway for social change. "The world of fashion was similarly looked to as a place where the culture could find signs of racial progress. Expressions of beauty and glamour mattered. Good race relations required taking note of who was selling women lipsticks and miniskirts, which meant that advertisers began looking for Black models." Black models were looked to as the vehicle of social change. They were given the opportunity to balance out the lack of presence of black individuals in the mainstream culture. Agencies were beginning to scout Black models and focus on the social change they were contributing to. In October 1969, Life magazine covered their issue with Naomi Sims, one of the most influential Black models in the industry. Her rise to fame led her to international magazine jobs and individual projects with designers across the globe. In the Life magazine issue, Black Beauty — a new agency that represented Black models — had a spread in the magazine that showcased 39 Black models. Each one of the models had her own unique features, allowing Black expression to progress through this historic magazine spread.
With the movement's presence both in magazines and the runway, designers began to realize the need to include Black models on their runways and advertisements. The battle of Versailles was one of the most notable moments in fashion history that put Black models on the map. Eleanor Lambert, creator of Fashion Week and a major "[controller] of the narrative of American fashion," set up a dinner and a fundraiser to both increase American fashion visibility and restore the palace of Versailles. Five French designers and five American designers battled it out on the runway, showing off the fashion, and for the Americans, Black models as well. Oscar de la Renta stated "it was the Black models that had made the difference." Pat Cleveland, Bethann Hardiason, Billie Blair, Jennifer Brice, Alva Chinn and Ramona Saunders, were among the many Black models that helped Team America win and stun the French competition. This competition made the Black model a worldwide phenomenon. The French were beginning to welcome diversity on the runway and in their advertising. With the recognition Versailles had given, Black presence in the modeling world carried out into the 1980s and the 1990s. The models were now known by name and the publicity that came with the designers they were modeling for. With the rise of the supermodel, models like Naomi Campbell and Tyra Banks paved the way for Black success. Naomi Campbell, born in London, was the first Black model to cover American Vogue, Time magazine, Russian Vogue and the first British Black model to cover British Vogue. Brands like Chanel, Louis Vuitton, Balmain, Prada and more have all featured Campbell in their campaigns. She used her remarkable success to achieve more than fashion excellence.
By the mid-1990s, black presence in the modeling world had dramatically decreased. Designers began to favor a consistent aesthetic and elected for skinnier white models. This reality was paved by models such as Kate Moss and Stella Tennant who provided a more consistent look for the runway. At this time, "the number of working Black models in high-profile runway presentation... became so dire that stories began appearing in the mainstream media about the whitewashing of the runway." In response, models like Campbell, Iman and Bethann Hardison joined forces through the "Diversity Coalition" in an attempt to "call out and accuse prominent fashion houses for snubbing Black and Asian models on the catwalk, editorial spreads and campaigns." The lack of representation was, in part, due to the belief that "Black girls don’t push products," which "encouraged people who work directly and indirectly in the industry to speak out on the injustices that go on within it." In the 1990s, it was quite clear that the top designers simply preferred a new aesthetic that excluded models of color, which resulted in only 6% of runway models to be women of color. Campbell's Diversity Coalition's main mission was to "expedite inclusion on the runway by deliberately calling out designers who have executed acts of racism on the runway." According to Campbell, it was their choice to not include Black models on the runway and desire a uniformed runway that resulted in a racist act.
Although there was a dramatic effort to exclude Black presence from the fashion world, models like Tyra Banks and Veronica Webb persisted. Banks not only dominated the runway as a teen, she took over countless pop culture platforms. Being the first Black model to cover Sports Illustrated, Banks was one of the most prominent models in the early 2000s. Covering Sports Illustrated, Elle, Essence, Vogue and walking for Chanel, Christian Dior and Claude Motnanta, Banks was truly dominating the fashion world. In addition, she acted in “Fresh Prince of Bel Air” and created her own reality competition show called “America’s Next Top Model.” In conversation with the New York Times, Banks stated that her first cover on Sport Illustrated "changed [her] life overnight … You have to think back to remember what that did for an appreciation of Black beauty to have a Black girl, a girl-next-door type, on the cover of one of the most mass mainstream magazines of our lives. It was a societal statement, a political statement and an economic one." Now, models like Joan Smalls, Winne Harlow, Slick Woods, Jasmine Sanders and more are continuing the fight for Black presence in the modeling world and using their successors as inspiration.
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