I stroll through the Addison Community Garden. There are many different kinds of vegetables, but there is also a wide variety of flowers. I spot the bright yellow snapdragons that seem to be welcoming the sun. It is the first time I have seen snapdragons in this garden, and it is a welcome sight. My maternal grandmother lived next door to my family for a few years, and she always had snapdragons blooming in front of her large porch. I have watched some of the “How To Train Your Dragon” movies and was always fond of Hiccup’s dragon Toothless and Astrid’s dragon Stormfly. They seem like friendly dragons who choose to help rather than hurt you. I think of snapdragons the same way. They are a friendly presence providing a little cheer to your day. Let’s find out more about them.
Antirrhinum is a genus of plants commonly known as dragon flowers or snapdragons because of the flowers' fancied resemblance to the face of a dragon that opens and closes its mouth when laterally squeezed. They are native to rocky areas of Europe, the United States and North Africa.
Description
The genus is morphologically diverse, particularly the New World group or Saerorhinum. The genus is characterized by personate flowers with an inferior gibbous corolla.
Circumscription
The taxonomy of this genus is complex and not yet fully resolved at present. In particular the exact circumscription of the genus, especially the inclusion of the New World species or Saerorhinum, is contentious. The situation is further complicated by the variety of terms in use for infrageneric ranks, especially of the Old World species, that is Antirrhinum, sensu stricto e.g., Streptosepalum, Kicksiella, Meonantha.
The USDA Plants Database recognizes only two species: A. majus or the garden snapdragon — the only species naturalized in North America — and A. bellidifolium or lilac snapdragon, now considered to be Anarrhinum bellidifolium (L.) Willd. As of April 2017, The Plant List (Version 1.1) — a list of botanical names of species of plants created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Missouri Botanical Garden and launched in 2010 — accepts 21 species.
A widely accepted scheme (Thompson 1988) placed 36 species in the genus in three sections. While many botanists accepted this broad circumscription (sensu lato), whose main departure from other classifications was the inclusion of the New World Saerorhinum, others did not, restricting the genus to the Old World. New species also continue to be discovered.
In 2004 research into the molecular systematics of this group and related species by Oyama and Baum confirmed that the genus sensu lato as described by Thompson is monophyletic, provided that one species (A. cyathiferum) is removed to the separate genus Pseudorontium, and the two species of Mohavea (Mohavea confertiflora and M. breviflora) are included.
This is the broad circumscription that includes the Old World Misopates and New World Sairocarpus. By contrast, the narrow circumscription (sensu stricto) confines the genus to the monophyletic Old World perennial species with a diploid chromosome number of 16, distributed in the Mediterranean basin, approximately 25 species (Tolety 2011), following the phylogenetic analysis of Vargas et al. (2004) suggesting they are a distinct group. Both Misopates and Sairocarpus are accepted names in The Plant List, and many of the New World species now have Sairocarpus as their accepted name, rather than Antirrhinum. It has been proposed that many of the New World Antirrhinum be now considered under Sairocarpus, in the forthcoming “Flora of North America,” a multivolume work describing the native plants and naturalized plants of North America, including the United States, Canada, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and Greenland.
Infrageneric subdivision
It is widely agreed that this broad group should be subdivided into three or four subgroups, but the level at which this should be done, and exactly which species should be grouped together, remain unclear. Some authors continue to follow Thompson in using a large genus Antirrhinum, which is then divided into several sections; others treat Thompson's genus as a tribe or subtribe and divide it into several genera.
If the broad circumscription is accepted, its three sections as described by Thompson are as follows (two Old World, one New):
- Section Antirrhinum: 19 Old World species of relatively large-flowered perennial plants, including the type species Antirrhinum majus, mostly native to the western Mediterranean region with a focus on the Iberian Peninsula. Chromosomes n=8. (3 subsections: Majora, Sicula, Hispanica)
- Section Orontium: two species, also from the Mediterranean. Chromosone number=8. The species in this section, including the section type species Antirrhinum orontium or lesser snapdragon are often treated in the genus Misopates.
- Section Saerorhinum: 15 small-flowered New World species, mostly annual plants and mostly native to California, though species are found from Oregon to Baja California Sur and as far east as Utah. Tetraploid (n=15-16). Like other authors, Thompson placed A. cyathiferum in this section, but Oyama and Baum, following earlier authors, suggest that it should be reclassified in genus Pseudorontium, while Mohavea should be included. Vargas et al. — strongly recommending segregation of the New World species — suggest that the 14 species originally recognized by Sutton in 1988 more properly belong to Sairocarpus (11 species), Howelliella (1 species) and Neogarrhinum (2 species). Other authors would also include alvezia glabrata, Galvezia junea, Galvezia rupicola and Galvezie speciosa. None of the names originally allocated to this section are now accepted.
Snapdragons
While Antirrhinum majus is the plant that is usually meant by the term of "snapdragon," if used on its own, many other species in the genus and in the family Scrophulariaceae more widely have common names that include the word "snapdragon." Antirrhinum molle is known as "dwarf snapdragon" in the UK.
Etymology
The word "antirrhinum" is derived from the Greek ἀντίρρινον antirrhinon "calf's snout, Antirrhinum Orontium" which in turn is derived from ἀντί anti "against, like" and ῥίς rhis "nose" (ῥινόϛ rhinos); thus, possibly "noselike", referring to the noselike capsule in its mature state.
Ecology
Snapdragons are short-lived perennial plants that survive well in cold seasons but are often replanted each spring and considered annual plants. They do best in full or partial sun, in well-drained soil since their roots are susceptible to rotting — although they do require regular watering. They are classified commercially as a range of heights: midget or dwarf (6–8 inches), medium (15–30 inches) and tall (30–48 inches). Removing the dead flowers — also called "deadheading" — is important to help them to continuously produce beautiful flowers throughout their growing season. They are susceptible to ethylene gas, so removing dead flowers and keeping them away from ripe fruits or vegetables also helps them bloom longer. They grow during their peak seasons of April to June and August to October and bloom in a variety of colors ranging from: white, yellow, orange, red, purple, pink and some multicolored patterns.
They are ecologically diverse, particularly the New World species Saerohinum.
Cultivation
The snapdragon is an important garden plant, widely cultivated from tropical to temperate zones as a bedding, rockery, herbaceous border or container plant. (Tolety 2011) Cultivars have showy white, crimson or yellow bilabiate flowers with two lips. It is also important as a model organism in botanical research, and its genome has been studied in detail.
Genetic Studies
Antirrhinum is a genus that has been used from the earliest genetic studies of Gregor Mendel and Charles Darwin and was used as a model by Erwin Baur (Tolety 2011). Together with closely related genera, it has become a model organism for the investigation of the genetic basis of plant development, particularly floral development. The genus is a typical example of incomplete dominance by the red allele with the anthocyanin pigment. Any cross between red-flowered and white-flowered snapdragons, give an intermediate and heterozygous phenotype with pink flowers, that carries both the dominant and recessive alleles.
Several species of Antirrhinum are self-incompatible, meaning that a plant cannot be fertilized by its own pollen. Self-incompatibility in the genus has been studied since the early 1900s. Self-incompatibility in Antirrhinum species is controlled gametophytically and shares many important features with self-incompatibility systems in Rosaceae and Solanaceae.
Uses
In addition to growing the plants for cut flowers, the seeds have been used to extract edible oils, particularly in Russia, while the leaves and flowers have been considered to possess antiphlogistic or anti-inflammatory properties and have been used in poultices. A green dye has also been extracted from the flowers.
Snapdragon Records
Snapdragon Records is a LLC business founded by New Berlin West alumni Kristan T. Harris and Dan Clark in Wisconsin in 2002. Ayisha Jaffer also contributed to the project in its infancy. The concept originated in 1999 and was put into action in 2002. The label is focused on indie talent — primarily punk, emo, ska, hardcore and experimental music. Most fall into the pop category of their respected genres. The company currently resides in the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It has been home to several well-known acts including Welton, A Farewell Rescue, I Voted for Kodos and GHOST!.
Snapdragon Film
“Snapdragon” is a 1993 film directed by Worth Keeter. It stars the former Playboy Playmate Pamela Anderson and was her first starring film role after the success of her Playboy layouts.
When two men are killed while watching television, Sergeant Peckham is sent from vice squad to homicide to investigate. She has her boyfriend, police psychologist David Stratton assist her. Soon they both become involved with Felicity, an amnesiac who keeps having a recurring nightmare where she kills her lovers. They both soon start to realize Felicity's involvement with their case.
The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, with no critics' reviews, does not rate the film. Audiences give the film a 21% rating, based on 929 reviews, with an average rating of 2.4/5. Karl Williams of The New York Times wrote, "This erotic psychological thriller marks the feature film debut of popular actress Pamela Anderson in a leading role. Felicity (Anderson) doesn't fit the psychological profile, and her bombshell beauty is having an intoxicating effect on David."
Snapdragon Productions
Snapdragon Productions is a London theatre company run by producer Sarah Loader and director Eleanor Rhode.
In 2018, they opened the UK Touring production “Teddy” by Tristan Bernays and Dougal Irvine. It opened at the Watermill Theatre and will finish its run at VAULTS Waterloo.
In April 2016, Snapdragon made their international debut at 59E59 Theaters, New York, with their off-Broadway transfer of “Toast” by Richard Bean. Snapdragon's 2016 world premiere of “teddy” by Tristan Bernays and Dougal Irvine won the 2016 Off West End Award for Best New Musical.
Between 2013 and 2015, Snapdragon presented three plays at The Park Theatre in their 200-seat space including their production of “Thark” by Ben Travers. The revival was the first London production in nearly 30 years and was the world premiere of its new adaptation by actor/writer Clive Francis. They returned to the venue in December 2013 to present the London premiere of “The Dead Wait” by Paul Herzberg.
On August 27, Snapdragon's revival of “Toast” by Richard Bean opened at The Park Theatre and received a consistently positive response, particularly for the strong ensemble performances including those from Matthew Kelly and Simo Greenall. On September 9, the company announced their production of “Toast” would tour the UK in 2016, culminating with a limited run off-Broadway as part of 59E59's Brits Off Broadway festival. Their transfer to 59E59 Theaters received favorable reviews including Critics Pick from Ben Brantley of The New York Times.
Their co-production of “Accolade” by Emlyn Williams opened to strong reviews. This production was produced with Nicola Seed as part of the Stage One season for new producers.
Snap-dragon game
Snap-dragon — also known as Flap-dragon, Snapdragon, or Flapdragon — was a parlor game popular from about the 16th century. It was played during the winter, particularly on Christmas Eve. Brandy was heated and placed in a wide shallow bowl; raisins were placed in the brandy which was then set alight. Typically, lights were extinguished or dimmed to increase the eerie effect of the blue flames playing across the liquor. The game is described in Samuel Johnson’s “Dictionary of the English Language” in 1755 as "a play in which they catch raisins out of burning brandy and, extinguishing them by closing the mouth, eat them." According to an article in Richard Steele’s “Tatler” magazine, "the wantonness of the thing was to see each other look like a demon, as we burnt ourselves, and snatched out the fruit." Snap-dragon was played in England, Canada and the United States, but there is insufficient evidence of the practice in Scotland or other countries.
Meanings
The words snap-dragon and flap-dragon can refer to the game, the raisins used in the game or the bowl with brandy and raisins. Other senses of flap-dragon are that of something worthless or trivial, as in "A Flap-dragon for your service, Sir!" from William Congreve’s “The Way of the World,” and "a contemptuous term for a Dutchman or German". In “The Winter’s Tale,” Shakespeare used it to describe a moment when a ship at sea is instantly swallowed up by a storm.
Ingredients
The liquid used in snap-dragon was typically brandy, although similar flammable liquors could also be used. Traditionally, raisins were the treat to be snatched; William Sandys specifies Málaga raisins. Other treats could also be used. Of these, almonds were the most common alternative or addition, but currants, candied fruit, figs, grapes and plums were also featured. Salt could be sprinkled in the bowl. The low bowl was typically placed in the middle of a table to prevent damage from the inevitable splashes of burning brandy. In one variation a Christmas pudding is placed in the center of the bowl with raisins around it.
Traditions
Most sources describe snap-dragon as a Christmas tradition, but Blain suggests that in the United States it was played at Halloween, and Platt notes:
The game was one particular to Halloween or Christmas or Twelfth Night; I will not specify which, because in the first place I do not know, and in the second place if I were to make a mistake I would be held up to ridicule and all my statements overthrown.
There were several other traditions surrounding the game of snap-dragon. Mary F. Blain describes the belief that the person who snatches the most treats out of the brandy will meet their true love within a year. In another tradition, one of the raisins contains a gold button and becomes "the lucky raisin." The person who fishes the raisin out can claim a reward or favor of their choosing. In the short story “Master Sandy’s Snapdragon” by Elbridge S. Brooks, snap-dragon is played in the royal household of James I of England. Young Prince Charles — later Charles I of England — catches the lucky raisin, and as his favor, requests the freedom of Walter Raleigh.
According to Robert Chambers’ “Book of Days” in 1879, the game was accompanied by a chant:
Here he comes with flaming bowl, Don't he mean to take his toll, Snip! Snap! Dragon! Take care you don't take too much, Be not greedy in your clutch, Snip! Snap! Dragon! With his blue and lapping tongue Many of you will be stung, Snip! Snap! Dragon! For he snaps at all that comes Snatching at his feast of plums, Snip! Snap! Dragon! But Old Christmas makes him come, Though he looks so fee! fa! fum! Snip! Snap! Dragon! Don't 'ee fear him but be bold – Out he goes, his flames are cold, Snip! Snap! Dragon!
Literary references
The first printed references to snap-dragons or flap-dragons are in Shakespeare's Love’s Labor’s Lost in 1594:
O, they have lived long on the alms- basket of words. I marvel thy master hath not eaten thee for a word for thou art not so long by the head as honorificabilitudinitatibus: thou art easier swallowed than a flap- dragon.
and in Henry IV, Part 2 in 1598:
Because their legs are both of a bigness, and a' plays at quoits well, and eats conger and fennel, and drinks off candles' ends for flap-dragons
John Dryden refers to them in his play “The Duke of Guise” in 1683:
I'll swear him guilty. I swallow oaths as easy as snap-dragon, Mock-fire that never burns.
Snap-dragons were also described in Isaac D’Israeli's “The Curiosities of Literature” (1791–1823). However, at this time it was not a parlor game but a drinking game, with the snap-dragons being "small combustible bodies fired at one end and floated in a glass of liquor, which an experienced toper swallowed unharmed, while yet blazing." Sandys cites a related variant of snap-dragon where a lit candle end is placed in a cup of ale or cider; the aim is to quaff the liquor without singeing one's face.
The first reference to snap-dragon explicitly as a parlor game is in Francis Grose's “Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue” in 1811: "Christmas gambol: raisins and almonds being put into a bowl of brandy, and the candles extinguished, the spirit is set on fire, and the company scramble for the raisins."
By the mid-19th century snap-dragon was firmly entrenched as a Christmas parlor game. In this sense it is referenced in 1836 in Charles Dickens’ “The Pickwick Papers” and in 1861 in Anthony Trollope's novel “Orley Farm.” Lewis Carroll, in “Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There” in 1871 describes "A snap-dragon-fly. Its body is made of plum pudding, its wings of holly-leaves, and its head is a raisin burning in brandy."
Agatha Christie's book “Hallowe’en Party” describes a children's party in which a child's murder causes Poirot to be brought in where snap-dragon is played at the end of the evening.
In “The Dark Flight Down” by Marcus Sedgwick, Chapter 5 describes a game of snapdragon played during the wake of Director Korp. The rules are described as a drinking game, whereby should a player drop the raisin, they have to take a shot. Boy recalls Valerian playing and winning the game with absinthe as the alcohol which burns, including how he used to show off as the game wore on.
Origins
n the English play “Lingua” in 1607, the practice is said to come from classical antiquity: "When Hercules had killed the flaming dragon of Hesperia with the apples of that orchard, he made this fiery meat; in memory whereof he named it Snapdragon." Brooks' ‘Master Sandy’s Snapdragon” suggests another mythical origin, relating the fire of snap-dragons to Saint George and the dragon. Chambers suggests that it hearkens back to druidic fire-worshop. According to the “Oxford English Dictionary” entry for flapdragon, "the original sense may have been identical with a dialectal sense of snapdragon, viz. a figure of a dragon's head with snapping jaws, carried about by the mummers at Christmas; but of this there is no trace in our quot[ation]s."
Science
Michael Faraday, in his essay “The Chemical History of a Candle” in 1860 suggested that the raisins in snap-dragon act like miniature wicks. The concept is similar to that of burning brandy on top of Christmas puddings — the brandy is burning but is not burning at a high enough temperature to consume the raisins. Nevertheless, children often burned their hands or mouths playing this game, which may have led to the practice mostly dying out in the early 20th century, while persisting in some families.
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