I walk in a business area with a bank, office supply store, furniture store, barbecue restaurant, etc. And there in the middle of all that commerce is a Buddhist center. Seems like an odd location, but I imagine a true practicing Buddhist can find zen anywhere. I traveled to Singapore once and saw Buddhist monks performing a funeral in a crematorium. The monks, along with the congregants, sang while marching around a gurney with the body on it. Then, they all picked up the body and put it in the oven. I am not kidding. Am not that familiar with Buddhism but do believe it is a very peaceful religion. I am not sure any wars have been waged in the name of Buddhism like they have for Christianity. That is a big plus in my book. I did enjoy the book and movie “Life of Pi” which expresses Buddhist philosophy. In the middle of a pandemic, I think we could all use a little more zen, don’t you? Read on to find out more.
Historical roots
According to Wikipedia, historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of Iron Age India around the middle of the first millennium BCE. This was a period of great intellectual ferment and sociocultural change known as the “Second urbanization,” marked by the growth of towns and trade, the composition of the Upanishads and the historical emergence of the Śramaņa traditions. The Upanishads are late Vedic Sanskrit texts of religious teaching and ideas still revered in Hinduism. Śramaņa means "one who labors, toils or exerts themselves for some higher or religious purpose" or "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic."
New ideas developed both in the Vedic tradition in the form of the Upanishads and outside of the Vedic tradition through the Śramaņa movements. The term Śramaṇa refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic religion, including Buddhism, Jainism and others such as Ājīvika.
Several Śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the sixth century BCE — pre-Buddha, pre-Manavira — and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy. According to Martin Wilshire, the Śramaṇa tradition evolved in India over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and Savaka phases, the former being the tradition of individual ascetic and the latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and Jainism ultimately emerged from these. Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical ascetic groups shared and used several similar ideas, but the Śramaṇa traditions also drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts and philosophical roots, states Wiltshire, to formulate their own doctrines. Brahmanical motifs can be found in the oldest Buddhist texts, using them to introduce and explain Buddhist ideas. For example, prior to Buddhist developments, the Brahmanical tradition internalized and variously reinterpreted the three Vedic sacrificial fires as concepts such as Truth, Rite, Tranquility or Restraint. Buddhist texts also refer to the three Vedic sacrificial fires, reinterpreting and explaining them as ethical conduct.
The Śramaṇa religions challenged and broke with the Brahmanic tradition on core assumptions such as Atman (soul, self), Brahman and the nature of afterlife. In addition, they rejected the authority of the Vedas and Upanishads. Buddhism was one among several Indian religions that did so.
Indian Buddhism
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into five periods: Early Buddhism (occasionally called pre-sectarian Buddhism), Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarian Buddhism: The period of the early Buddhist schools, Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, Late Mahāyāna and the era of Vajrayana or the "Tantric Age."
Pre-sectarian Buddhism
According to Lambert Schmithausen Pre-sectarian Buddhism is "the canonical period prior to the development of different schools with their different positions."
The early Buddhist texts include the four principal Pali Nikāyas — and their parallel Agamas found in the Chinese canon — together with the main body of monastic rules, which survive in the various versions of the pāțimokkha. However, these texts were revised over time, and it is unclear what constitutes the earliest layer of Buddhist teachings. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pāli Canon and other texts. The reliability of the early sources and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings is a matter of dispute. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.
According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:
1. "Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials.”
2. "Skepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism."
3. "Cautious optimism in this respect."
The Core teachings
According to Mitchell, certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, which has led most scholars to conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, Nirvana, the three marks of existence, the five aggregates, dependent origination, karma and rebirth.
According to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the Theravada Pali texts and the Mahasamghika school's Śālistamba Sūtra. A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravada Majjhima Nikaya and Sarvastivada Madhyama Agama contain mostly the same major doctrines. Richard Salomon, in his study of the Gandharan texts — which are the earliest manuscripts containing early discourses — has confirmed that their teachings are "consistent with non-Mahāyāna Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by 18 separate schools."
Ashokan era and the early schools
According to numerous Buddhist scriptures, soon after the parinirvāna or highest extinguishment of Gautama Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission. Many modern scholars question the historicity of this event. However, Richard Gombrich states that the monastic assembly recitations of the Buddha's teaching likely began during Buddha's lifetime, and they served a similar role of codifying the teachings.
The so called Second Buddhist council resulted in the first schism in the Sangha. Modern scholars believe that this was probably caused when a group of reformists called Sthaviras or elders sought to modify the Vinaya or monastic rule, and this caused a split with the conservatives who rejected this change. They were called Mahāsāmghikas. While most scholars accept that this happened at some point, there is no agreement on the dating, especially if it dates to before or after the reign of Ashoka.
Buddhism may have spread only slowly throughout India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE), who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas, temples and to its spread throughout the Maurya Empire and into neighboring lands such as Central Asia and to the island of Sri Lanka.
During and after the Mauryan period (322–180 BCE), the Sthavira community gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravada school which tended to congregate in the south and another which was the Sarvāstivāda school, which was mainly in north India. Likewise, the Mahāsāmghika groups also eventually split into different Sanghas. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over monastic disciplinary codes of various fraternities, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.
Following or leading up to the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate their own version of Tripitaka, triple basket of texts. In their Tripiṭaka, each school included the Suttas of the Buddha, a Vinaya basket or disciplinary code, and some schools also added an Abhidharma basket which were texts on detailed scholastic classification, summary and interpretation of the Suttas.
Post-Ashokan expansion
According to the edicts of Ashoka, the Mauryan emperor sent emissaries to various countries west of India to spread "Dharma," particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries.
In central and west Asia, Buddhist influence grew, through Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs and ancient Asian trade routes, a phenomenon known as Greco-Buddhism. An example of this is evidenced in Chinese and Pali Buddhist records, such as Milinda Pañha and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra.. The Milinda Pañnha describes a conversation between a Buddhist monk and the 2nd-century BCE Greek king Menander, after which Menander abdicates and himself goes into monastic life in the pursuit of nirvana. Some scholars have questioned the Milinda Pañnha version, expressing doubts whether Menander was Buddhist or just favorably disposed to Buddhist monks.
The Kushan empire (30–375 CE) came to control the Silk Road trade through Central and South Asia, which brought them to interact with Gandhāran Buddhism and the Buddhist institutions of these regions. The Kushans patronized Buddhism throughout their lands, and many Buddhist centers were built or renovated — the Sarvastivada school was particularly favored — especially by Emperor Kanishka (128–151 CE). Kushan support helped Buddhism to expand into a world religion through their trade routes. Buddhism spread to Khotan, the Tarim Basin and China, eventually to other parts of the Far East. Some of the earliest written documents of the Buddhist faith are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, dating from about the 1st century CE, and connected to the Dharmaguptaka school.
The Islamic conquest of the Iranian Plateau in the 7th century, followed by the Muslim conquests of Afghanistan and the later establishment of the Ghaznavid kingdom with Islam as the state religion in Central Asia between the 10th and 12th century led to the decline and disappearance of Buddhism from most of these regions.
Late Indian Buddhism and Tantra
During the Gupta period (4th–6th centuries) and the empire of Harsavardana (c. 590–647 CE), Buddhism continued to be influential in India, and large Buddhist learning institutions such as Nalanda and Valabahi Universities were at their peak. Buddhism also flourished under the support of the Pāla Empire (8th–12th centuries). Under the Guptas and Pālas, Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana developed and rose to prominence. It promoted new practices such as the use of mantras, dharanis, mudras, mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas and developed a new class of literature, the Buddhist Tantras. This new esoteric form of Buddhism can be traced back to groups of wandering yogi magicians called mahasiddhas.
According to Indologist Alexis Sanderson, various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism. Sanderson has argued that Buddhist tantras can be shown to have borrowed practices, terms, rituals and more form Shaiva tantras. He argues that Buddhist texts even directly copied various Shaiva tantras, especially the Bhairava Vidyapitha tantras.
Already during this later era, Buddhism was losing state support in other regions of India, including the lands of the Karkotas, the Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas, the Pandyas and the Pallavas. This loss of support in favor of Hindu faiths like Vaishnavism and Shaivism is the beginning of the long and complex period of the decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent. The Islamic invasions and conquest of India from the 10th to the 12th centuries further damaged and destroyed many Buddhist institutions, leading to its eventual near disappearance from India by the 1200s.
Monasteries and temples
Buddhist institutions are often housed and centered around monasteries and temples. Buddhist monastics originally followed a life of wandering, never staying in one place for long. During the three-month rainy season, they would gather together in one place for a period of intense practice and then depart again. Some of the earliest Buddhist monasteries were at groves or woods. There originally seems to have been two main types of monasteries — monastic settlements were built and supported by donors and woodland camps were set up by monks. Whatever structures were built in these locales were made out of wood and were sometimes temporary structures built for the rainy season.
Over time, the wandering community slowly adopted more settled cenobitic forms of monasticism. Also, these monasteries slowly evolved from the simpler collections of rustic dwellings of early Buddhism into larger more permanent structures meant to house the entire community, who now lived in a more collective fashion. During the Gupta era, even larger monastic university complexes arose, with larger and more artistically ornate structures, as well as large land grants and accumulated wealth.
There are many different forms of Buddhist structures. Classic Indian Buddhist institutions mainly made use of the following structures: monasteries, rock-hewn cave complexes, stupas or funerary mounds which contained relics and temples such as the Mahabodhi “Great Awakening” Temple.
In Southeast Asia, the most widespread institutions are centered on wats, which refers to an establishment with various buildings such as an ordination hall, a library, monks' quarters and stupas. East Asian Buddhist institutions also use various structures including monastic halls, temples, lecture halls, bell towers and pagodas. In Japanese Buddhist temples, these different structures are usually grouped together in an area termed the garan. In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Buddhist institutions are generally housed in gompas. They include monastic quarters, stupas and prayer halls with Buddha images.
The complexity of Buddhist institutions varies, ranging from minimalist and rustic forest monasteries to large monastic centers like Tawang Monastery. The core of traditional Buddhist institutions is the monastic community who manage and lead religious services. They are supported by the lay community who visit temples and monasteries for religious services and holidays.
In the modern era, the Buddhist "meditation center" — which is mostly used by laypersons and often also staffed by them — has also become widespread.
Cultural influence
Buddhism has had a profound influence on various cultures, especially in Asia. Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist art, Buddhist architecture, Buddhist cuisine and Buddhist festivals continue to be influential elements of the modern culture of Asia, especially in East Asia and the Sinosphere as well as in Southeast Asia and the Indosphere. According to Litian Fang, Buddhism has "permeated a wide range of fields, such as politics, ethics, philosophy, literature, art and customs," in these Asian regions.
Buddhist teachings influenced the development of modern Hinduism, as well as other Asian religions like Taoism and Confucianism. For example, various scholars have argued that key Hindu thinkers such as Adi Shankara and Patanjali, author of the Yoga sutras, were influenced by Buddhist ideas. Likewise, Buddhist practices were influential in the early development of Indian yoga.
Buddhist philosophers like Dignaga were very influential in the development of Indian logic and epistemology. Buddhist educational institutions like Nalanda and Vikramashila preserved various disciplines of classical Indian knowledge such as grammar and medicine and taught foreign students from China.
In an effort to preserve their sacred scriptures, Buddhist institutions such as temples and monasteries housed schools which educated the populace and promoted writing and literacy. This led to high levels of literacy among some traditional Buddhist societies such as Burma. According to David Steinberg, "Early British observers claimed that Burma was the most literate state between Suez and Japan, and one British traveler in the early 19th century believed that Burmese women had a higher percentage of literacy than British women."
Buddhist institutions were also at the forefront of the adoption of Chinese technologies related to bookmaking, including paper and block printing which Buddhists sometimes deployed on a large scale. The first surviving example of a printed text is a Buddhist charm; the first full printed book is the Buddhist Diamond Sūtra (c. 868), the oldest known printed book in the world. The first hand-colored print is an illustration of Guanyin dated to 947.
Buddhists were also influential in the study and practice of traditional forms of Indian medicine. Buddhists spread these traditional approaches to health — sometimes called "Buddhist medicine" — throughout East and Southeast Asia, where they remain influential today in regions like Sri Lanka, Burma, Tibet and Thailand.
In the Western world, Buddhism has had a strong influence on modern New Age spirituality and other alternative spiritualities. This began with its influence on 20th century theosophists such as Helena Blavatsky, which were some of the first Westerners to take Buddhism seriously as a spiritual tradition.
More recently, Buddhist meditation practices have influenced the development of modern psychology, particularly the practice of mindfulness-based stress reduction and other similar mindfulness-based modalities. The influence of Buddhism on psychology can also be seen in certain forms of modern psychoanalysis.
Buddhism also influenced the modern avant garde movements during the 1950s and 60s through people like D.T. Suzuki and his influence on figures like Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg.
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